Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures. Technical Barriers to Trade. Trade Remedies , revised as of Jan. Investment , revised as of Jan. Cross-Border Trade in Services. Financial Services.
They should not distort the global to display information required by an importing country market, have adverse effects on fair competition, or stifle including health information on a supplementary label, innovation and technological development [31]. As with effective health warning labels on alcohol containers if other provisions on international standards, it sets trade, they are interpreted as meaning that required information if not above, then at least competing with health and should not interfere with the main labels [30].
The safety regulations. This could see a government accept an information should be relegated to an unused space international standard with a lower threshold of safety on the container. Already the US-based Art. Any standard exceeding that re- on Canada and Mexico to adopt standards preferred by cognized as an international standard which de facto the US food industry and likely less influential in shaping would bring it into accord with the SPS Chapter and would healthier food choices [33, 34].
This requirement regulatory capture by vested private interests. Regarding cosmetics, for example, which can pose attempt a new regulation. This will have the same health risks e. At important public health ethic [37]. The administrative compliance burden im- the most economic cards in such an endeavor? USMCA Parties must annually publish sustained or recurring course of action or inaction that lists of proposed regulations Art While the regulatory measures that would be covered by its regu- Framework Convention on Tobacco Control FCTC latory coherence chapter, USMCA text has no such makes clear that it is not appropriate for Parties to involve provision essentially placing all regulatory measures the tobacco industry in policy development -- effecting within its ambit.
Globalization and Health Page 8 of 15 rights and protections to foreign investors. While bi- oil drilling. NAFTA was provisions until a final decision is made by an arbitration the first regional trade agreement to incorporate more panel. But as more future profitability of an investment.
The number of than one commentator has noted: investor claims and amount of awards determined by The dramatic turnaround on ISDS in the renegotiated tribunals also increased dramatically since the s, often NAFTA, the agreement which triggered the explosion of with the encouragement of corporate law firms profiting ISDS cases in the late s, is significant.
Perhaps it will from such challenges [40]. Many of these challenges relate once again spur a novel approach to international invest- to health, environment, and social protection measures, ment governance, but one in which ISDS is no longer the and almost half of recent disputes have been between norm or is at least more tightly circumscribed [44]. For example, provisions that shift investors sued the US 15 times, and Mexican investors distributions of power among economic actors e.
Procedurally, protections. Provisions can also deal directly with employ- ISDS tribunals have been criticized for a lack of trans- ment conditions which impact health through exposure to parency, conflicts of interest amongst arbitrators ruling risk factors, injuries, physical and chemical hazards, ergo- on disputes, and lack of appeal processes.
Criticism of nomics, psychosocial conditions and broader determi- ISDS have led to some amendments in recent agreements. Given the importance of working conditions Given the role played by NAFTA in promoting expan- and the sustainability of our ecological commons are to sive ISDS provisions in subsequent treaties, it is signifi- human health, such attention in trade agreements should cant that the USMCA has significantly limited the be welcomed by public health.
Although such provisions application of ISDS provisions in its investment chapter. Also like the labour reforms [51]. The acceptability of labour setting its enforcement procedures. There is a certain standards, for example, is to be determined by each irony, for example, that the US under the Obama adminis- individual country. In Mexico, there is currently no unemployment as the following describes: benefit anchored in national legislation.
While Canada Prisoners earn as little as 23 cents an hour working on and the US both have legislated unemployment schemes, assembly lines, and their products often compete for the share of unemployed who actually receive benefits is business with legitimate government contractors who 40 and These targeted social protection for trade displaced workers, respectable American companies make apparel and including job retraining services.
The scheme, however, footwear for many branches of the U. There are also ment provisions. This would seem to exclude all persons working protect workers against employment discrimination on in the non-export or private investment-driven sectors, the basis of sex, including with regard to pregnancy, such as public employees and teachers, with potential sexual harassment, sexual orientation, gender identity, and knock-on effects for health equity [45].
The labour inaction does not include an isolated instance or case chapter also requires that Mexico allow independent footnote 8. Globalization and Health Page 10 of 15 the Party that has failed to comply with this obligation; Environment or [2] a person or industry that produces goods or pro- The Environment Chapter begins with this normative vides services that compete in the territory of a Party claim: with goods or services of another Party footnote 9.
The Parties recognize that a healthy environment is an It has been argued that these definitions set a low integral element of sustainable development and recognize threshold for claims of violations and could make it the contribution that trade makes to sustainable develop- easier to initiate labour-related arbitrations in the future ment Art. If a country its obligations under this Chapter.
This arrangement represents a first attempt have domestic requirements for such impact assessments, at integrating a guaranteed minimum wage into a trade what it means and why it is here in a trade treaty is agreement.
Some trade analysts argue that a lower dis- unclear. The chapter repeats calls in other treaties for parity between US and Mexican automotive workers may cooperation between the Parties with respect to engaging redirect investment and employment away from Mexico in new multilateral environment agreements, notably: to the US [42]. However, it is unclear whether automakers The Parties commit to consult and cooperate as in Mexico are likely to triple the going hourly wage, or appropriate with respect to environmental issues of simply opt to pay the comparatively low tariff only 2.
This adherence to this provision would be monitored by either includes, inter alia, exchanging information on the the American or Mexican government. The provision also implementation of multilateral environmental agree- makes no allowance for inflation adjustment and neglects ments to which a. Globalization and Health Page 11 of 15 views on becoming a party to additional multilateral trophy animals to determine if such hunting is posing environmental agreements Art. The problem with The italicized text may be insignificant, but it could Article This is Reference is also made to the importance of protecting widely seen as the US ensuring that Canada and Mexico biodiversity but there is no mention of the International follow the US lead in trade or investment dealing with Convention on Biodiversity, which the US despite past China.
Failure to abide by this could lead to termi- programs protecting biodiversity has yet to ratify. From the perspective purchases from Russia increased in of Algiers, this would have amounted the first decade of the s, Algiers to a violation of its independence.
From to , Energy cooperation formed another Russian arms supplies accounted for key aspect of the strategic partnership. As Souyouzgaznef to collaborate on oil part of its aim to balance its strategic and liquefied natural gas exploration. Several within the framework of the Mediter- years later, in , Sonatrach invit- ranean Dialogue, particularly in the ed Gazprom to explore and develop area of counterterrorism. Despite the inroads that they. Others Germany Russia Ties deepened in the s, ily American and British.
Military coop- ways overlap with those of Russia. Al- eration reached unprecedented levels giers values its reputation as an auton- after Egypt then known as the United omous actor in the energy sphere.
The Arab Republic was defeated by Isra- importance of Western investment in el in the Six Day War, and the Algeria, as well as the role of Europe Soviet Union acquired access to Egyp- as its main gas customer, means that tian naval and air bases. Economic and Algeria has little incentive to engage in technical assistance also formed part price setting or the restriction of sup- of the Egyptian-Soviet relationship. Much like gious Aswan Dam.
In , as one that would be ready to work for an arms deal worth some 3. This was followed by Russia made some progress in rekin- the creation of a joint Commission dling ties with Egypt.
US pressure to for Military-Technical Cooperation, embark on political reforms rendered joint military and counter-terrorism President Hosni Mubarak amenable exercises, and a agreement that to developing relations with Russia, grants Russia access to Egyptian air- particularly with regard to trade and space and the use of military bases and energy cooperation.
An opportunity for Moscow to strengthen Economic cooperation has also in- its relations with Egypt thus presented creased, largely as a result of expand- itself, and Russia seized upon it. This will successor, President Abdul Fatah El-Si- enable Russian companies to benefit si, to pursue a multi-dimensional for- from agreements Egypt has with Af- eign policy, aimed at reducing depen- rican countries, the European Union, dence on any one international power.
Mercusor, and other Arab countries that grant preferential treatment for When El-Sisi became president in goods manufactured in Egypt. In , the Russian Russia can be expected to reap addi- state-owned company, Rosneft, won tional economic and political benefits additional rights to develop the Zohr from this.
Even so, ties with Russia gas field. Increased cooperation in the do not represent alternatives to those energy sector is largely due to a with other major international part- agreement in which Russia agreed to ners in the West, notably the Unit- construct a nuclear power plant in ed States, or key regional partners, Egypt, 85 percent of which is to be such as Saudi Arabia and the United financed through a Russian loan.
The Arab Emirates. Even in the military plant will be maintained over a 60 year sphere, where relations are densest, period by Rosatom. In , say that Russia could not gain a larger Egypt abstained from a UN Gener- share of the Egyptian arms market in al Assembly resolution calling on all the future.
Egypt has also ly take place over the short term. Arms largely aligned its stance on Syria with purchases from the United States are, that of Russia. In , Egypt vot- moreover, part of the terms of the ed with Russia against a French draft Peace Treaty between Egypt and UNSC resolution for a ceasefire in Israel, and thus need to be maintained.
Aleppo that would have included the establishment of a no-fly zone. More recently, in , countries is far more significant. In- Egypt was a vocal critic of US, UK and vestment in Egypt is also dominated French airstrikes in Syria in response to by companies from Europe, the Unit- the use of chemical weapons. Egyptian regime continues to seek a This alone is an achievement. Beijing recently concluded a ed States in the early s, and the comprehensive strategic partnership Soviet Union lost a major ally in the with Cairo.
The Qaddafi re- administrative capital, and Cairo is gime was interested in Soviet arms,. As in the Alge- Gazprom. The Qaddafi regime also rian and Egyptian cases, Soviet-Libyan granted Russia access to the port in relations were strongest in the military Benghazi for its naval fleet.
The Soviet Union began sup- plying arms to Libya in Over the When the rebellion began in early next decade, thousands of Russian sol- , Russia took a pragmatic ap- diers were stationed there. Libya was, proach. It did not come to the aid however, not important enough to the of the Qaddafi regime, though it did Soviets to risk confrontation with the abstain from voting on UNSC Res- United States.
Soviet-Libyan relations olution , which called upon all cooled after the United States carried UN member states to use all neces- out airstrikes in Libya in retaliation for sary means to protect civilians against the bombing of a West Berlin regime forces. It did so partly because nightclub, which was believed to have it believed that the mandate was too been planned by the Qaddafi regime.
Al- sanctions imposed in response to the though the regime had purchased bombing of the Pan Am flight arms from Russia, many of the other were suspended, in , and then contracts it had agreed to in principle lifted, in However, in return for never materialized amid competition the surrender of Libyan intelligence with US, French, and UK interests in officers implicated in the Pan Am Libya.
As a result, he Libya came to a virtual halt. As a re- looked to revive relations with Russia. It also lost 10 billion USD. These deals includ- the right to use the Port of Benghazi. In addition, reports that per- Qaddafi regime. As a result, Russian sonnel from Russian private security companies tended to lose out to US companies have also been deployed and European firms.
Haftar has also been invit- However, the outbreak of civil war ed to Moscow, where he is believed in mid led to growing Russian to have lobbied for Russian arms sup- interest in Libya. Moscow initially plies, and, in , he was invited to appeared to be trying to replicate in board a Russian aircraft carrier on its Libya what it has done in Syria.
In the way back from Syria, during which he Syrian civil war, Russia stood firmly was rumored to have promised Russia behind the Assad regime. As a result, it access to the port in Benghazi.
In recognition for its support, to the consternation of the Central Russia has secured the long-term use Bank of Libya in Tripoli. This has made him a neces- Haftar, who leads an eastern-based sary interlocutor in peace talks, even militia, which refuses to recognize the though he has sought to derail the UN-backed Government of National UN-brokered Libyan Political Accord GNA in Tripoli.
Russian lihood that eastern politicians allied special forces and military advisors with him would compromise with. Amid the sub- It also became evident that Haftar sequent stalemate in the UN peace would be unable to conquer major process, Moscow came to be seen as population centers in Western Lib- one of the only countries, along with ya, including Tripoli and Misrata, perhaps Egypt, capable of convincing where powerful militias nominally Haftar to accept the LPA in principle loyal to the GNA are based.
Attempting to replicate the Syria substantial military assistance from model seems to be paying off. Russia to do so.
While some observ- ers expected Russia to more heavily The ease with which Moscow was able intervene in Libya, Moscow has been to use high-powered diplomacy in reticent to do so. Libya does not have the Libyan conflict was partly made the same geostrategic significance as possible by the relative absence of the Syria. As a result, Russia altered its United States in the peace process. The approach to Libya over the course Obama administration chose to focus of It began to reach out to the on counter-terrorism in Libya, and prime minister of the GNA in Trip- was loath to get any more involved to oli, Fayez Al-Serraj, as well as repre- a country that appeared peripheral to sentatives from Misrata.
Moscow also its core security concerns. This stance began to stress that it was pursuing a has largely been maintained under policy of equidistance with regard to the Trump administration. Although the European Union established a contact group charged imposed sanctions on several political with forging contacts to help Moscow figures in order to help broker the LPA, engage with all relevant political fac- individual European states have failed tions in the country.
Plac- as mediators in the conflict. Thus, a ing its weight behind Haftar helped void was left for Moscow to fill. Moscow consolidate its role as a key international stakeholder. However, However, bringing Haftar on board Haftar is no Assad. He is not the head the UN-backed political process of a regime that can prevail over op- proved more difficult than expected.
Keeping its options open With elections due to be held in , makes sense, particularly since Rus- Moscow appears to be looking toward sian firms will have to compete with the future. As in Syria, reconstruction French and Italian ones that have a is likely to imply large contracts for stronger foothold in Libya.
In addition, Lib- Russia is making inroads in several ya has large deposits of oil and gas that key states in the Arab world. The Arab. As a re- ible approach. Russia has traditional- sult, Russian engagement offers more ly supplied arms to many countries in options to states that wish to reduce the region.
Their militaries are thus dependence on any one international familiar with Russian materiel and actor or resist pressure from civil so- may prefer it, particularly since it is ciety or external actors for democratic often sold on favorable terms. Arms sales and energy coop- European Union still struggles to exert eration are thus likely to remain the influence.
The Obama administration main policy instruments employed underestimated the gains that Russia by Moscow to engage regimes and to would reap from its military interven- garner influence in the region.
The to regional stability. Jeffrey, Special Representative for Syria Engage- gion. As the Libyan case demonstrates, ment, Theodore Karasik and the Middle East, eds. Wezeman et al. A New Strategic Partnership? Carnegie Moscow Center, Sectors Los Angeles: Sage, , Return to the Middle East: Building Sandcastles?
Theo- for Near East Policy, Providing interpretations of key trends rather than a comprehensive survey of events, this publication will appeal to analysts, policy-makers, academics, the media and the interested public alike. Strategic Trends is available both as an e-publication and as a paperback. It offers security policy expertise in research, teaching, and consulting activities.
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